Significance in the novel Essay Example For Students

Hugeness in the novel Essay Tough situations is a book composed by Charles Dickens and is set in the anecdotal city of Coketown. In the book Dickens gets over his perspectives about Victorian culture through his characterisation of the people in the story. The two scenes I will talk about in this paper are, section one and part six when Gradgrind advises Louisa of a proposition to be engaged from Bounderby. I have picked these two scenes to draw from while examining Gradginds nature and his depiction in the novel as they show a movement in his character. In part one, Gradgrind, who isn't yet named, is appeared as a brutal, ugly figure with a, square temple. His rakish face with its, cavern molded eyes, square, mass of a temple and, a ranch of firs for hair mirrors the, plain, exposed, dreary schoolroom which remains before him. This demonstrates him to be brimming with realities similarly as the schoolroom may be. The accentuation of the difference among certainty and creative mind is depicted in this part through the speaker, Gradgrind, and the storyteller. The storytellers discourse is brimming with innovative language and uses a lot of similitudes and analogies, for instance, while his eyes discovered comfortable cellarage in two dim caverns. This firmly diverges from the speakers matter-of-certainty language, Teach these young men and young ladies only Facts. Realities alone are what are needed from life. The word, Fact is accentuated by its capital letter, this blasts out at the peruser, establishing this their enduring connection of Gradgrind. Plainly in this scene Dickens, through the characterisation of Gradgrind, is mirroring his perspectives on the instruction framework. He utilizes Gradgrind, depicting him as a cruel, ugly, undermining man, to mirror the instruction framework in the Victorian time frame. He accentuates the learning of realities and the absence of any creative mind through expressions, for example, The speaker, the schoolmaster and the third developed individual present, all upheld a bit, and cleared with their eyes the slanted plane of little vessels, without even a moment's pause orchestrated all together, prepared to have majestic gallons of realities filled them until they were full to the edge. This expression tells the peruser that they will be so loaded with realities that they will be without everything else, the word, vessels additionally de-customizes the youngsters accentuating that they will resemble actuality filled automatons. Part six shows a sensational change in the manner the peruser saw Gradgrind in section one. This part is muddled in the terms of Gradgrinds characterisation. There are three principle differentiates in this part, among Gradgrind and Sleary, that among Bounderby and Sleary and that among Gradgrind and Bounderby. These differences are exceptionally smart as they demonstrate Gradgrind to be kinder than Bounderby, which has not been appeared before, yet in addition show that Gradgrind isn't as kind as Sleary who, by chance is loaded with creative mind (another stand out from Gradgrind to show that being brimming with realities is negative). The complexity among Gradgrind and Sleary is halfway appeared through manner of speaking. Albeit imposing and drink-saturated, Sleary talks understandably, unmistakably more so that Gradgrind or Bounderby. Slearys discourse obstruction, thquire, and bazaar language add appeal and delicateness to his addresses, while, Gradgrinds matter-of-certainty talks, He is disappeared, and there is no current desire for his arrival, present him in a to some degree uncaring light. Be that as it may, in spite of the fact that this uniqueness portrays Gradgrind as having an unsympathetic nature, his activities and his appear differently in relation to Bounderby gives us an increasingly positive perspective on him. Gradgrind is demonstrated to be unique in relation to Bounderby now as he wishes to take Sissy in, despite the fact that she isn't brimming with realities and could impact his kids with accounts of her time at the carnival, while Bounderby says to Gradgrind, No. .u0286bed5ea60cb4103d9f39f367f2dca , .u0286bed5ea60cb4103d9f39f367f2dca .postImageUrl , .u0286bed5ea60cb4103d9f39f367f2dca .focused content region { min-tallness: 80px; position: relative; } .u0286bed5ea60cb4103d9f39f367f2dca , .u0286bed5ea60cb4103d9f39f367f2dca:hover , .u0286bed5ea60cb4103d9f39f367f2dca:visited , .u0286bed5ea60cb4103d9f39f367f2dca:active { border:0!important; } .u0286bed5ea60cb4103d9f39f367f2dca .clearfix:after { content: ; show: table; clear: both; } .u0286bed5ea60cb4103d9f39f367f2dca { show: square; progress: foundation shading 250ms; webkit-change: foundation shading 250ms; width: 100%; mistiness: 1; change: darkness 250ms; webkit-change: haziness 250ms; foundation shading: #95A5A6; } .u0286bed5ea60cb4103d9f39f367f2dca:active , .u0286bed5ea60cb4103d9f39f367f2dca:hover { murkiness: 1; change: obscurity 250ms; webkit-progress: darkness 250ms; foundation shading: #2C3E50; } .u0286bed5ea60cb4103d9f39f367f2dca .focused content territory { width: 100%; position: relati ve; } .u0286bed5ea60cb4103d9f39f367f2dca .ctaText { fringe base: 0 strong #fff; shading: #2980B9; text dimension: 16px; textual style weight: intense; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; text-design: underline; } .u0286bed5ea60cb4103d9f39f367f2dca .postTitle { shading: #FFFFFF; text dimension: 16px; textual style weight: 600; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; width: 100%; } .u0286bed5ea60cb4103d9f39f367f2dca .ctaButton { foundation shading: #7F8C8D!important; shading: #2980B9; outskirt: none; fringe range: 3px; box-shadow: none; text dimension: 14px; text style weight: striking; line-stature: 26px; moz-fringe span: 3px; text-adjust: focus; text-enhancement: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-tallness: 80px; foundation: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/modules/intelly-related-posts/resources/pictures/basic arrow.png)no-rehash; position: outright; right: 0; top: 0; } .u0286bed5ea60cb4103d9f39f367f2dca:hover .ctaButton { foundation shading: #34495E!important; } .u0286bed5ea60cb4103d9f39f367f2d ca .focused content { show: table; tallness: 80px; cushioning left: 18px; top: 0; } .u0286bed5ea60cb4103d9f39f367f2dca-content { show: table-cell; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; cushioning right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-adjust: center; width: 100%; } .u0286bed5ea60cb4103d9f39f367f2dca:after { content: ; show: square; clear: both; } READ: The Inside Of Raymond'S Run EssayI state no. I prompt you not. I state in no way, shape or form. When Gradgrind will not tune in to his companion and chooses to give Sissy a home any way the peruser is stunned as only a couple of sections already he had a favorable opinion of Bounderbys assessment that he says this redundantly to Tom and Louisa after he discovers them topping in at the carnival, What might Mr Bounderby state. We likewise observe another contrast between the two companions in the manner that they address Sissy. Bounderby is so ailing in civility that when he converses with Sissy, Let the young lady get truth. Let her take it fro m me, on the off chance that you like, who have been fled from myself. Here, whats your name! Your dad has departed suddenly abandoned you and you mustnt hope to see him again as long as you live, that Sleary says his workers may, essence you out o winder! Gradgrind talks in an additionally mindful estate, and he doesnt call Sissy, whats your name! Gradgrind does at present talk in a reality full way yet he is substantially more thoughtful and obliging than Bounderby, I, who came here to tell the dad of the poor young lady, Jupe, that she was unable to be gotten at the school anything else, in result of there being reasonable complaints, into which I need not enter, to the gathering there of the offspring of people so utilized, am set up in these changed conditions to make a proposition. This long sentence additionally shows that Gradgrind is attempting to quiet the circumstance down for Sissy before he makes his, proposition, this is likewise very insightful. All through this scene the relationship that Gradgrind has with youngsters has changed. The peruser can no longer envision him as considering Sissy a vessel as in section one. Nonetheless, the peruser likewise sees that Gradgrind hasnt made an absolute change, a long way from it, and that he despite everything accepts diligently in realities. The two scenes additionally show an adjustment in the manner Gradgrind sees his status. In section one it would be incomprehensible that he would invest any energy conversing with, lower, carnival individuals, not to mention be thing about taking in a modest bazaar youngster! I imagine that through the contrasts between Gradgrinds character in section one and in part six he is demonstrating that through better correspondence and understanding the Victorian instruction framework and industry could improve. All in all, I believe that Dickens has utilized the characterisation of Gradgrind keenly. Indeed, even his name mirrors his character. The, Grad or evaluation is a result of his assurance that his kids should focus on real issues alone, they are at risk for never completely forming into typical individuals, and the, pound and its anxiety with the various phases of our lives. His depictions of Gradgrind all show joins with the Victorian business and training framework in this skilful political novel.

The Vampire Diaries The Fury Chapter Fifteen Free Essays

string(105) memory of how she had assaulted Stefan in the forested areas, and how she had felt when she was dashing toward Mr. Elena watched Damon with quiet fear. She realized that upsetting grin excessively well. In any case, even as her heart sank, her brain tossed a taunting inquiry at her. We will compose a custom article test on The Vampire Diaries: The Fury Chapter Fifteen or on the other hand any comparative theme just for you Request Now Why did it make a difference? She and Stefan were going to bite the dust in any case. It just appeared well and good for Damon to spare himself. What's more, it wasn't right to anticipate that him should conflict with his tendency. She watched that delightful, impulsive grin with a sentiment of distress for what Damon may have been. Katherine grinned back at him, captivated. â€Å"We’ll be so content. Once they’re dead, I’ll let you go. I didn’t intend to hurt you, not so much. I just got angry.† She put out a slim hand and stroked his cheek. â€Å"I’m sorry.† â€Å"Katherine,† he said. He was all the while grinning. â€Å"Yes.† She inclined nearer. â€Å"Katherine†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"Yes, Damon?† â€Å"Go to hell.† Elena jumped from what occurred next before it occurred, feeling the savage upsurge of Power, of pernicious, unbridled Power. She shouted at the change in Katherine. That flawless face was bending, transforming into something that was neither human nor creature. A red light bursted in Katherine’s eyes as she fell on Damon, her teeth sinking into his throat. Claws sprang from her fingertips, and she raked Damon’s as of now draining chest with it, attacking his skin while the blood streamed. Elena continued shouting, acknowledging faintly that the agony in her arms was from battling the ropes that held her. She heard Stefan yelling, as well, yet above all that she heard the stunning scream of Katherine’s mental voice. Presently you’ll be heartbroken! Presently I’m going to make you sorry! I’ll execute you! I’ll murder you! I’ll murder you! I’ll slaughter you! The words themselves hurt, similar to knifes wounding into Elena’s mind. Its sheer Power stunned her, shaking her back against the iron pickets. However, there was no real way to escape from it. It appeared to reverberate from all around her, pounding in her skull. Slaughter you! Murder you! Murder you! Elena swooned. Meredith, hunkered alongside Aunt Judith in the utility room, moved her weight, stressing to decipher the sounds outside the entryway. The mutts had gotten into the basement; she wasn’t sure how, yet from the wicked gags of some of them, she thought they had gotten through the ground-level windows. Presently they were outside the utility room, yet Meredith couldn’t determine what they were doing. It was excessively peaceful out there. â€Å"Hush,† Robert murmured rapidly. â€Å"It’s good, darling. Everything’s going to be all right.† Meredith met his scared, decided eyes over Margaret’s tow head. We nearly had you pegged for the Other Power, she thought. However, there was no opportunity to think twice about it now. â€Å"Where’s Elena? Elena said she’d watch over me,† Margaret stated, her eyes enormous and grave. â€Å"She said she’d deal with me.† Aunt Judith put a hand to her mouth. â€Å"She is dealing with you,† Meredith murmured. â€Å"She simply sent me to do it, that’s all. It’s the truth,† she included savagely, and saw Robert’s look of censure liquefy into perplexity. Outside, the quietness had offered approach to scratching and biting sounds. The pooches were grinding away on the entryway. Robert supported Margaret’s head nearer to his chest. Bonnie didn’t realize to what extent they had been working. Hours, absolutely. Always, it appeared as. The mutts had gotten in through the kitchen and the old wooden side entryways. Up until this point, however, just around twelve had moved beyond the flames lit like blockades before these openings. Also, the men with weapons had dealt with the majority of those. However, Mr. Smallwood and his companions were currently holding void rifles. What's more, they were coming up short on things to consume. Vickie had gotten insane a short time prior, shouting and holding her head as though something was harming her. They’d been searching for approaches to control her when she at long last dropped. Bonnie went up to Matt, who was watching out over the fire through the destroyed side entryway. He wasn’t searching for hounds, she knew, however for something different a lot more distant away. Something you couldn’t see from here. â€Å"You needed to go, Matt,† she said. â€Å"There was nothing else you could do.† He didn’t answer or pivot. â€Å"It’s nearly dawn,† she said. â€Å"Maybe when that comes, the canines will leave.† But even as she said it, she knew it wasn’t valid. Matt didn’t answer. She contacted his shoulder. â€Å"Stefan’s with her. Stefan’s there.† Finally, Matt gave some reaction. He gestured. â€Å"Stefan’s there,† he said. Earthy colored and growling, another shape charged out of the dull. It was a lot later when Elena came progressively to awareness. She knew in light of the fact that she could see, not simply by the bunch of candles Katherine had lit yet in addition by the virus dark obscurity that separated down from the crypt’s opening. Damon? she thought. It was simply after she had done it that she understood the word had not been verbally expressed. Some way or another, Katherine’s screaming had shut a circuit in her brain, or perhaps it had stirred something dozing. Furthermore, Matt’s blood had without a doubt helped, invigorating her the to at last locate her psychological voice. She turned her head the other way. Stefan? His face was fatigued with torment, however mindful. Excessively mindful. Elena nearly wanted that he were as oblivious as Damon to what was befalling them. Elena, he returned. Where right? Elena stated, her eyes moving gradually around the room. Stefan looked toward the opening of the grave. She went up there some time back. Perhaps to keep an eye on how the pooches are getting along. Elena had thought she’d arrived at the restriction of dread and fear, yet it wasn’t valid. She hadn’t recalled the others at that point. Elena, I’m sorry. Stefan’s face was loaded up with what no words could communicate. It’s not your issue, Stefan. You didn’t do this to her. She did it to herself. Or on the other hand, it simply happened to her, in view of what she is. What we are. Running underneath Elena’s musings was the memory of how she had assaulted Stefan in the forested areas, and how she had felt when she was hustling toward Mr. You read The Vampire Diaries: The Fury Chapter Fifteen in class Article models Smallwood, arranging her retribution. It could have been me, she said. No! You would never become that way. Elena didn’t answer. On the off chance that she had the Power now, what might she do to Katherine? What wouldn’t she do to her? Be that as it may, she realized it would just agitated Stefan more to discuss it. I thought Damon would sell out us, she said. I did, as well, said Stefan strangely. He was taking a gander at his sibling with an odd articulation. Do you despite everything despise him? Stefan’s look obscured. No, he said unobtrusively. No, I don’t despise him any longer. Elena gestured. It was significant, some way or another. At that point she began, her nerves hyper-alert, as something shadowed the passage to the sepulcher. Stefan strained, as well. She’s coming. Elena-I love you, Stefan, Elena said pitifully, as the foggy white shape plunged down. Katherine took structure before them. Obviously, thought Elena. How might I have been so dumb? Damon rode with us in Alaric’s vehicle over the waterway. He crossed running water at that point, and most likely loads of different occasions. He couldn’t have been the Other Power. It was peculiar how she could think despite the fact that she was so startled. Maybe one piece of her brain stood viewing from a separation. â€Å"I’m going to execute you now,† Katherine said conversationally. â€Å"Then I’m going under the stream to slaughter your companions. I don’t think the mutts have done it yet. Be that as it may, I’ll deal with it myself.† â€Å"Let Elena go,† said Stefan. His voice was extinguished however convincing no different. â€Å"I haven’t concluded how to do it,† said Katherine, disregarding him. â€Å"I may cook you. There’s practically enough light for that now. What's more, I’ve got these.† She came to down the front of her outfit and brought her finished hand off. â€Å"One-two-three!† she stated, dropping two silver rings and a gold one onto the ground. Their stones shone blue as Katherine’s eyes, blue as the stone in the neckband at Katherine’s throat. Elena’s hands bent wildly and she felt the smooth exposed state of her ring finger. It was valid. She wouldn’t have accepted how stripped she felt without that circlet of metal. It was important to her life, to her endurance. Without it- â€Å"Without these you’ll die,† Katherine stated, scraping the rings imprudently with the toe of one foot. â€Å"But I don’t know whether that’s moderate enough.† She paced back nearly to the furthest mass of the sepulcher, her silver dress gleaming in the diminish light. It was then that the thought came to Elena. She could move her hands. Enough to feel one with the other, enough to realize that they weren’t numb any longer. The ropes were looser. Yet, Katherine was solid. Incredibly solid. What's more, quicker than Elena, as well. Regardless of whether Elena got free she would possess energy for just a single speedy act. She turned one wrist, feeling the ropes give. â€Å"There are other ways,† Katherine said. â€Å"I could cut you and watch you drain. I like watching.† Gritting her teeth, Elena applied weight against the rope. Her hand was bowed at a horrifying edge, yet she kept on squeezing. She felt the consume of the rope slipping aside. â€Å"Or rats,† Kather

Writing Essays in Exams

Writing Essays in ExamsWriting essays in exams can be an extremely difficult task. There are many tips that will help you with this but most of these tips may not be suitable for everyone. However, most of the tips are very useful and they will help you with any problems that you may face. This article will discuss what you should do with your essay topics.It is a great idea to learn how to write about yourself as an author. You should focus on writing about your strengths and the areas where you have certain limitations. Try to find the weak areas and work on them. The benefits that you will get from this can be great when you are preparing for exams.One of the most effective methods of writing is brainstorming. This is a very important technique that you need to practice as it can help you a lot when you are writing essays in exams. When you are able to write your ideas in your head then you will be able to achieve better results.After you have completed the research material then you should make sure that you are able to present your paper on time. Students that fail to make up their papers on time are usually the ones that give up right at the start. This is why it is important that you make sure that you have prepared your paper well in advance.You should make sure that you are able to present your essay topics properly. You should also try to make sure that your paper will hold up under scrutiny. If your essays are written poorly then it is very likely that you will fail your exam.When writing essays in exams, you should try to avoid quoting other people's opinions. You should know the different opinions that other people have and what makes them think the way that they do. By being aware of the opinions of others you will be able to gain insight on your own opinions. Therefore, you should always be careful about the opinions that you give.You should also make sure that you will be able to include enough references. You should avoid using only one referen ce or two references because you need to be able to use other resources. However, if you use more than two references then you need to provide strong arguments so that the reader will be able to understand your opinions.Essays are usually graded on several factors. Most of these factors include relevance, clarity, credibility, and style. Therefore, it is very important that you prepare well so that you will be able to score high when you are writing essays in exams.

Montage From The Soviet Era Essay - 1353 Words

Montage The use of montage dates back to the days of Eisenstein and it has greatly transformed the film industry in several major ways. Montage has been used in the film industry to combine several series of short shots into a continuous film that can be watch by audience. This essay is aimed at illustrating the history of Montage from the Soviet era in the 1930s especially the use of the Soviet montage theory to better the quality of films that we watch today. The connotation of the word â€Å"montage† is also sometimes referred to as cutting in certain sectors of France (Eisenstein, 2010). This corroborates with the actual meaning and intentions behind montage in the film realm. This essay will also give the advantages that montage has in the film industry. Montage is a technique used when editing films originated back in the 1920’s. This method involves juxtaposing shots in a quick fashion. It compresses time thereby conveying information in a short duration of time. The Soviet montage theory in film emphasizes on the importance of editing when creating a film. Soviet filmmakers developed this theory, which revolves round the aspect of spatial matches; this technique incorporates discontinuity in graphic qualities and is consistently used in the Hollywood continuity system. It is often characterized by the use of temporal ellipses. Montages are as a result of collisions between different shots in order to convey the idea in the thesis of a film. Montages are based on theShow MoreRelatedLev Vladimirovich Kuleshov and The Moscow Film School Essay918 Words   |  4 Pagesfollowing a story their way and feeling it in those exact steps. Lev Vladimirovich Kuleshov a Soviet filmmaker and film theorist in the 1920s who taught at and helped establish the world’s first film school, the Moscow Film School. 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Marketing Strategy Planning And Marketing Research

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The Profession Of Teaching Candidate Self Evaluation Essay

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Educational Leadership

Questions: 1. A. Duignan, P. (2014). Authenticity in educational leadership: history, ideal, reality. Journal of Educational Administration, 52(2), 152-172.2. Dimmock, C., Yong Tan, C. (2013). Educational leadership in Singapore: Tight coupling, sustainability, scalability, and succession. Journal of Educational Administration, 51(3), 320-340.3. Gabbard, D. (2013). Educational Leadership or Followership?. Democracy and Education, 21(1), 8.4. Lovett, S., Dempster, N., Fluckiger, B. (2014). Educational leadership with indigenous partners. Leading and Managing, 20(1), 1. 5. Spillane, J. P. (2004). Educational leadership. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 26(2), 169-172.6. Tosas, M. R. (2016). Educational Leadership Reconsidered: Arendt, Agamben, and Bauman. Studies in Philosophy and Education, 1-17.7. Arguments on the annotated bibliography. Answers: 1. Patrick Duignan, who is an author of Educational Leadership at Australian Catholic University, writes this article. This article reveals that there is no coherent body of literature for the concept of authentic leadership, but it is based on the self-focus that is supported by a moral force. This article defines that the education leadership can be evaluated on two criteria- what education will be beneficial for the students and how to evaluate the education the students are receiving is morally right for them. This can be analyzed through the authenticity of the educational courses they are introduced and assess them through various examination and real life tests where students can demonstrate their real-time intellectual power. 2. This article depicts the importance of education leadership in Singapore written by Clive Dimmock and Cheng Yong Tan who are the professor of University of Leicester, UK and educational faculty of National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University. This article highlights that even though the education system of Singapore is known worldwide but it suffers from the lack of literature for supporting pedagogical initiatives. These authors also describes that their educational leadership culture focuses on logistics knowledge, human resource policies and distinctive leader-teacher compact defines the sustainability, high performance across the entire Singapore school system, scalability, succession of their education success. 3. This article is written by Davis Gabbard, who is an Associate Professor in Department of Literacy and propose research on Language and Culture and works as a critical educational theorist and policy analyst. In this article, it is portrayed that there is a difference between the past and present education and this fact is depicted through the example of the medical school. Primary challenge explained in this journal is that whether teacher-training programs values more than the clinical experience in medical schools. It can be concluded that according to the current political climate and meeting industrial needs, schools must focus on the practical knowledge to contribute to economic productivity in the future thus following the organizational goals is the partner of the education leadership adopted by the school. 4. Three authors have developed this journal, who is the Associate Professor at the University of Canterbury and Griffith University respectively having the common subject that is in educational leadership, development, retention and attrition for aspiring new and experienced educational leaders. This article demonstrates the importance of effective education system for the aboriginal communities for their betterment in the society. They work for a common project Principals as Literacy Leaders with Indigenous Communities (PALLIC) Project that is aimed at closing the gap between numeracy programs and intensive literacy for Indigenous students. Effective education leadership is required in the indigenous situation as the cultural knowledge of Indigenous peoples is different from the culture of the educators. 5. This article is based on the education leadership for the K-12 education system. The author James P. Spillane is a Professor in Learning and Organizational Change at the School of Education and develops theories for the better education system. This article intends to provide about the issues and they depicts the importance of educational leadership that is to recognize school accomplishment and failures along with the establishment of strong lines of communication between the students with their teachers. Moreover, it also highlights the fact that the educational leadership does not focus on the schoolhouse or district office but the clear goals in the forefront of the school's attention. 6. Mar Rosa `s Tosas is a professor at the University of Chicago and in this journal claims that educational leadership as an autonomous discipline that is different from typical business and political leaderships goals and strategies. This article also states that the success of educational leadership depends on its ability to teach learners about the facts, and skills of a pre-established program. Thus, it can be evaluated that the effective educational leadership emphasizes on fulà ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã‚ ll students unique and singular potential after analyzing their ability otherwise it is hard to identify in the beforehand. 7. The selected journal articles are different in the chosen fields; however, covers the same area of concern that is to provide effective education to the learner for better understanding. This not only ensures their better future but also help in the economic development of the nation. The next step will be to analyze the outcome of these articles so that details that are more accurate can be obtained from the implementation of the educational leadership. Reference List Duignan, P. (2014). Authenticity in educational leadership: history, ideal, reality.Journal of Educational Administration,52(2), 152-172. Dimmock, C., Yong Tan, C. (2013). Educational leadership in Singapore: Tight coupling, sustainability, scalability, and succession.Journal of Educational Administration,51(3), 320-340. Gabbard, D. (2013). Educational Leadership or Followership?.Democracy and Education,21(1), 8. Lovett, S., Dempster, N., Fluckiger, B. (2014). Educational leadership with indigenous partners. Leading and Managing, 20(1), 1. Spillane, J. P. (2004). Educational leadership.Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis,26(2), 169-172. Tosas, M. R. (2016). Educational Leadership Reconsidered: Arendt, Agamben, and Bauman.Studies in Philosophy and Education, 1-17.

Out-of-School Suspension free essay sample

A study of this type of educational penalty. This paper presents an in-depth examination of out-of-school suspension. The writer explores the concept, its history and the effectiveness of using out-of-school suspension as a punishment for students. The writer then provides several alternatives to the out-of-school suspension punishment, including in-school suspension and Saturday school. In recent years the public has demanded that the public school system be revamped. The discipline of students is an issue that is often focused on. Discipline in public schools has gone through many changes over the years. In the effort to strike a balance that will allow students to continue their education while teaching responsibility is a dilemma districts often face. One of the tools used for school discipline is out of school suspension(MacDonald, 2002). Recently the effectiveness of out of school suspension has come under fire. Out of school suspension may remove students from the classroom, but in the interim it causes them to miss valuable instruction. We will write a custom essay sample on Out-of-School Suspension or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page In addition the students who are most likely to be suspended are already at risk for giving up and dropping out. Out of school suspension may be encouraging the giving up and promote student dropouts. While Americans demand that the nations education system be revamped it is time to design alternative plans to out of school suspension for the future of the countrys students. There are several alternative methods that can be implemented to take the place of out of school suspensions.

Ofcom and Product placement following the changes in European broadcasting legislation The WritePass Journal

Ofcom and Product placement following the changes in European broadcasting legislation Introduction Ofcom and Product placement following the changes in European broadcasting legislation IntroductionConsumer BehaviourMethodologyReferencesRelated Introduction UK Regulatory company Ofcom (2011) state that, â€Å"Product placement is when a company pays a TV channel or a programme-maker to include its products or brands in a programme†. Product placement has been allowed on UK television for many years in the form of movies and international programmes but regulations have been relaxed as of 28th February 2011 in accordance with the recent changes in European broadcasting legislation (Ofcom, 2011). Consumer Behaviour In order to examine the effectiveness of product placement, it is important to first understand how consumers behave and ways that we can best communicate our advertising message to them. Seminal papers on the topic of consumer behaviour (Stigler, 1961) suggest that consumers behave in a rational and predictable manner. Research done by Stigler (1961), suggests that consumers will continue to perform an information search on a product until the costs of doing so out weight the benefits. Kotler (2003) goes on to suggest that purchase is a purely rational response to a problem and identified that the consumer must execute several steps in order to resolve the problem. Mowen (1988) suggests a five stage purchase process whereby the consumer behaves in a linear and economically rational fashion. Simon (1957) suggests that consumers are limited by ‘bounded rationality’ and that we have the ability to perform simple rational problem solving tasks but are unable to rationally perform complex problem solving tasks. The theory suggests that in order to perform complex rational problem tasks we must eliminate some of the outcome variables. The simplicity and linear structure of consumer behaviour was first questioned by Palda (1966), in relation to advertising theories suggesting that existing consumer behaviour theories did not allow for whimsical decisions of the consumer.   Christensen, Torp and Firat (2005), note how in our postmodern markets fragmentation is a predominant feature and as consumer choice increases, nuclear family structures decline in numbers resulting in an ever increasing number of markets. Goulding (2003) has also analysed the difficulties presented to the postmodern consumer as segment and market fragmentation increase the level of choice and make it difficult for consumers to perform problem solving tasks (Kotler, 2003). According to Simons (1957) and Gouldings (2003) theories, it could be argued that brands and lifestyle products help to eliminate consumer choice outcome variables by projecting a set of aspiration values to define themselves in the marketplace. The consumer is then able to align themselves with a brand that best reflects the desired projected lifestyle the brand represents (Reynolds, Gengler and Howard, 1995). Jacoby et al., (1977) argue brand names (along with packaging, price and other branding indicators) make this decision process easier for the consumer as they are provided with a ‘chunk’ of learned information associated with the brand reducing the need for further unnecessary information searches. According to this theory, strong brand equity can add significant advantage in today’s saturated market places as it is the added value to a product or service (Farquhar, 1989). Brand assets add or subtract value and thus to the brand equity (Aaker, 1991) and these assets are communicated through marketing strategies. Keller (1993) suggests measuring brand equity serves two purposes: to establish the financial position of the brand and to establish brand differentiation benefits built through the brand assets. In his summary of brand knowledge, Keller (1993) suggests that brand assets belong under types of brand association and within this are categorised into attributes, benefits or attitudes. In an advertising perspective, it is important to fully utilise brand assets in order to enhance brand differentiation in the marketplace (Wright, 1973). Marketers use forms of advertising to communicate these brand attributes, of which there are two basic theories of how advertising works; cognitive theories and affect theories. Cognitive theories were the first advertising theories suggested and assume the consumer as ‘a purely rational information-processor’ (Ambler and Vakratsas, 1996). It is likely that in 1898 the seminal advertising theory model AIDA (attention, interest, desire and action) was developed by St. Elmo Lewis (Strong, 1925, p.76). Colley (1961) presents a similar model known as DAGMAR whereby the consumer is first aware of the product and involvement is also a mediating factor. The consumer then experiences an affect response and finally a conative response. The simplicity of these models and assumption of consumer predictability was first criticised by Palda (1966) and is juxtaposed with affect theories. Affect theories suggest that brand attitude and favourability is formed in a post advertisement ex posure scenario through classical conditioning (Lavidge and Steiner, 1961). This suggests that affect theories could change attitudes through a number of exposures known as the ‘Mere Exposure Effect’ (Zajonc, 1968). More modern theorists (such as Batra and Ray, 1986 and Biehal et al., 1992) suggest that in low involvement situations liking the ad can have positive effects on brand attitude which is in some circumstances linked to brand persuasion and choice. Theoretically it could be argued this is where the idea of product placement stems from. If the entertainment medium the placement is contained in is considered ‘the advert’, as consumers liking for this increases so should the liking for the brand. Lutz et al. (1983) propose 5 influencers which will affect how the advertisement is perceived: (a) the credibility of the ad; (b) other perceptions of the ad; (c) attitude toward the advertiser; (d) attitude toward advertising in general; and (e) the recipients general affective state or mood at the time of exposure. These 5 antecedents could be applied into a product placement context when considering Petty, Cacioppo and Schumann (1983) peripheral processing theory. This theory suggests that a person’s change of attitude can occur not purely through logical consideration of the pros and cons of an advocacy but that an attitude change can be influenced by positive or negative cues or the individual’s disposition before exposure to the advocacy (Batra and Stayman, 1990). William’s (2001) findings on the influences soap operas can have on developing nations support the application of these 5 perception influencers in a product placement context. Williams (2001) found that non-advertising soap operas were creating a demand for sewing machines and condoms in developing countries. This suggests that attitudes towards the programme or movie (or the characters placed within it) can have an effect on purchase intention, perception and behaviour even when no brands or products are spe cifically being promoted. Karrh (1998) has found that products placed in a movie elicit better explicit memory brand recall then those that are not placed within a movie. Conversely, brand favourability is positively enhanced after exposure to a prominent placing when viewers have reported a disliking to a product placement medium or television programme (Cowley and Barron, 2008). It is important to note that in these circumstances the product placement was very prominent and lacked modality to the plot. A common finding within the literature suggests that modality and plot connection to the product or brand being placed can increase positive attitude change in subtle product placements. Russell’s (2002) research on modality and plot connection to product placement effectiveness shows that if the brand placement is well connected to the plot it can have a positive effect on attitude change. Hudson and Hudson (2006) discuss the increasing use of placements of placements with high levels of plot modality and the stronger emotional connection this technique can potentially create with the target. Russell (2002) also found that in low plot connections visual only placements could be more persuasive then audio only placements. Interestingly, Gupta and Lord (1998) found that in high modality placement situations there was a 37.5% brand recall rate for audio only placements in comparison to a 5.6% recall rate for visual only placements. Law and Braun’s (2000) research also ref lects these audio/visual comparison results. If there is little modality between the brand and the plot this can unfavourably effect brand attitude and the brand is often discounted if it is a subtle placement. Conversely, a highly prominent incongruent placement can result in increased brand recall and better explicit brand memory (Von Restorff, 1933; Russell, 2002; Brennan et al., 1999; d’Astous Chartier, 2000). Yang and Roskos-Ewoldsen (2007) discuss the consequences of better understanding the consumer’s ability to process and comprehend the story within a movie or television programme and how it can affect explicit memory. They suggest using situation models and identifying enablers within the story line in order to better place a product within the plot. They use the example of Reece’s Pieces in the movie E.T. and how they are used to lure the alien inside the house. Here, the product is described as the enabler as it enables the plot of the film to progress forwards. Attempting to obviously elicit a strong explicit memory response can have repercussions. Bhatnagar et al. (2004) uses the adverse reaction to Fay Weldon’s book The Bulgari Collection as an example of the critique and negative associations that can occur as a result the palpable placement of Bulgari jewellery in the title. Balasubramanian (1994) suggests that these adverse reactions and cognitive dissonance are created through the knowledge that it is a persuasion effort. In their seminal paper, Friedstad and Wright (1994) were able to identify that consumers have developed a way of coping with persuasion attempts in order to achieve their own goals such as a consumers internal beliefs as to how they process and utilise a persuasion attempt. The model illustrates how the agent’s topic, persuasion and target knowledge leads to a persuasion attempt. When in contact with the target this then becomes the persuasion episode and leads to persuasion coping behaviour. This expos ure can then potentially lead to topic knowledge, persuasion knowledge and even agent knowledge. Bhatnagar et al. (2004) believe that it is most consumers’ unawareness to the fact that a product placement effort is a persuasion attempt is what makes it successful. Karrh et al. (2003) conversely claim that placements unable to induce brand recall with the target are deemed unsuccessful, this could be due to the fact that recall demonstrates a cognitive response which according to early advertising theories (Colley, 1961) may lead to an affect state and eventually a conative response. Studies have however shown that despite inability to perform brand recall, high frequency placement exposures where persuasion knowledge is low and involvement is high have shown to positively affect brand attitudes (Matthes et al., 2007). The ‘Mere Exposure Effect’ should also be considered here as it suggests an individual’s favourability towards a target will increase with each target exposure (Zajonc, 1968; Kunst-Witson and Zajonc, 1980). There is great debate not only in the literature but also from a regulatory perspective, about the ethical validity of a target’s topic knowledge without persuasion or agent knowledge. This type of knowledge is stored using implicit memory. Law Braun-LaTour, (2004) discuss the importance of considering both implicit and explicit memory when exploring product placement. Findings produced by Bhatnagar et al. (2004) indicate the potential power of product placement through the fact that participants involved in their study were able to perform brand recall yet were unable to recall where and when the brand was placed suggesting the application of implicit memory. Schacter (1987) examines a history of implicit memory and how subjects involved in implicit memory studies do have the ability to learn without cognition. Kunst-Wilson and Zajonc (1980) exposed subjects to geometric shapes for a period of time which was deemed too short for them to consciously acknowledge (1 ms) thereby reducing the chances of explicit memory recall. Despite this subjects involved were able to show implicit memory use through distinct preference of shapes they had been exposed to. Research has shown that not only does implicit memory give an individual the power to recall without cognition but it can also influence perception and attitude (Bargh and Pietromonaco, 1982). Bargh and Pietromonaco (1982) exposed subjects to subliminal hostile words and then asked the subjects to rate a target. The subjects exposed to the hostile words consistently rated the targets more negatively than the control group. Lewicki (1985) found that after subliminal exposure to adjective-noun pairs (for example big-dog), subjects had a tendency to choose the preceding adjective when asked how they â€Å"felt† about the noun (for example is the dog old or big?). Despite the inquisitive experiments in the early to mid 1980’s, advertisers had already been using subliminal techniques for thirty years. In 1957 Coca Cola produced its first subliminal advertising attempt provoking public outrage and shock (Moore, 1982). Audience members viewing a movie in progress were presented with superimposed flashes of ‘Eat Popcorn’ and ‘Drink Coca Cola’ on screen. After these exposures, sales of popcorn and Coca Cola during the movie increased by 57.5% and 18.1% respectively (Rodgers, 1992). The ethical indignation is the issue of directly influencing audience members – without their knowledge – to buy a product they neither desired nor required (Klass, 1986). It has been suggested that some practitioners might consider product placement to be a subliminal method of advertising (Karrh, 2003; Balasubramanian, 1994; D’Astous Chartier, 2000). If the subject does not experience persuasion knowledge and the persuasion effort is below the conscious threshold, does this mean they are being subliminally targeted? Conversely it has been accepted that even advertisements above the conscious threshold level do not always reach a subject’s conscious level (Klass, 1986). This could explain the delicate issue of product placement aimed at children who are often unable to recognise even obtrusive persuasion attempts (Auty and Lewis, 2004). The ethical concerns associated with product placement could explain the independent UK regulations authority for the UK communications industry, Ofcom’s (2011) effort to make product placement ‘transparent’ and ensure ‘consumer protection’ in the UK. New regulations (see appendix 1 for a full list of UK regulations) state that a special product placement logo (consisting of the letter ‘P’ with a bold outline – appendix 2) must precede the beginning, recommencing of a programme containing paid-for brand placement and again at the end. Ofcom (2011) have provided basic information on product placement, the changes in law and what UK consumers are now to expect on their website and are also broadcasting campaigns to raise awareness of the regulation changes. In addition, measures have been taken by Ofcom (2011) to further protect consumers by insisting placements must be ‘programme-related material’ and banning the placem ent of smoking, alcohol, gambling, instant formula, any product that is already banned from appearing on television and food and drinks high in salt or sugar. The restrictions on placing ‘programme-related material’ only could mean that brands advertising on UK television could see greater brand attitude transformation (Russell, 2002) and a reduced brand memory function (Von Restorff, 1933; Russell, 2002; Brennan et al., 1999; d’Astous Chartier, 2000) unless it is in an audio only situation (Gupta and Lord, 1998; Law and Braun, 2000). Product placement as an evaluation of a mass media =   Product Placements in Movies: A Cross-Cultural Analysis of Austrian, French and American Consumers Attitudes Toward This Emerging, International Promotional Medium.(Statistical Data Included), Journal of Advertising, | December 22, 2000 | Gould, Stephen J.; Gupta, Pola B.; Grabner-Krauter, Sonja = uses a US movie and collects a questionnaire across international boarders in order to study brand perceptions on a multi national basis. Uk product placement will be directly targeted at a UK audience. Will it be at the right target audience if it is in the right programme and the right characters are using it? Celebrity endorsement theories hold the potential to providing additional leverage for placed brands.   Research has suggested that the use of celebrity endorsements can lead to an increase in brand favourability (Till et al., 2008) and even an indirect increase in brand equity (Spry et al., 2011). Comparable to the ‘parasocial theory’, Agrawal and Kamakura (1995) discuss how a successful celebrity endorsement can reflect some of the brand’s attributes. Halonen-Knight and Humerinta (2010) concur with this theory, suggesting that meanings and values can be transferred from the celebrity endorser to the brand and vice versa. White et al., (2009) attract our attention to the possibility of negative attitude transference from the celebrity endorser to the brand if the endorser’s reputation has for some reason been compromised. Silvera and Austad (2004) have suggested in their study that the target’s perceived similarities between themselves and the end orser can be an influence when measuring celebrity endorsement effectiveness. This principle could theoretically be applied to the target’s perceived similarities between themselves and a character within the television programme using or wearing the placed brand. Russell and Stern (2006) found that consumers align themselves with placed products in accordance with how characters in the programme align themselves with the product. Their research discusses the ‘genre theory’ whereby characters are associated with the brands and products they use in order to help the viewer identify the character’s social grouping. The ‘parasocial theory’ suggests that viewers form attitudes and relationships with sitcom characters and the running length of a sitcom is therefore important so as viewers can form a deeper, trusting relationship with the character. The ‘parasocial theory’ could mean that placements within television programmes could be more effective then product placements in movies (Avery and Ferraro, 2000). These theories are combined by the ‘balance theory’ which is based upon Heiders (1946, 1958) balance theory in social psychology and explains an individuals desire to maintain consist ency among a triad of linked attitudes. Using celebs helps to gain audience attention Limited capacity of attention? Gamers are they more focussed then passive viewers? Advertising noise Practitioner attitudes towards product placement Bhatnagar et al. (2004) claim that â€Å"companies expect consumers to form attitudes towards brands based on the contexts in which they are presented† suggesting that industry professionals have a simplistic and linear approach to product placement. Difficulties in measuring product placement performance, helps to relieve squeezed income streams due to recession for broadcasters, practitioners might think it will help them get around the problem of ad avoidance behaviour Product placements trends – more zapping, gupta and lord 1998 found that product placement induced better brand recall then commercial advertisements, saturation of advertising mediums Ben Kozary and Stacey Baxter http://anzmac2010.org/proceedings/pdf/anzmac10Final00353.pdf, ad avoidance behaviour, Marian Friestad and Peter Wright pre-empt = teaching adolescents when they are being targeted Go back through literature review and fill in with papers already printed Methodology Avery and ferraro 2000- virtually impossible to tell what products are deliberately placed and which ones feature as part of the set Important to firstly establish the level of modality the brand has in the examples to be used in the research Difficult to distinguish between the effects of product placement and other ongoing promotional campaigns in the research (suggested by batnagar et al http://apps.olin.wustl.edu/faculty/malkoc/Chapter%206.pdf ) Good for how to measure product placement ideas: juhl.co.uk/the-effectiveness-of-product-placement-in-video-games.pdf by Jasper K. Juhl good for research ideas RECEPTIVENESS OF GAMERS TO EMBEDDED BRAND MESSAGES IN ADVERGAMES: ATTITUDES TOWARDS PRODUCT PLACEMENT Tina Winkler and Kathy Buckner psychological memory tests have in the past largely used free recall cued recall and recognition, To test implicit memory instead of being asked to try to remember recently presented information, subjects are simply required to perform a task, such as completing a graphemic fragment of a word, indicating a preference for one of several stimuli, or reading mirror-inverted script; memory is revealed by a facilitation or change in task performance that is attributable to information acquired during a previous study episode: History and Current Status, Daniel L. Schacter, Journal of Experimental Psychology: 1987, Vol. 13, No. 3. 501-518 â€Å"An evaluation of the potential of Product Placement within UK   TV advertising.† Or â€Å"Product placement in UK TV advertising an exploratory study.† Objective 1 Determine whether product placement improves brand recall among consumers. Objective 2 Examine whether product placement influences consumers’ attitude towards the brand. Objective 3 Explore the importance of congruency between the placed product and programme format. Objective 4 Assess whether product placement increases the likelihood of purchase of the placed brand. We can play around with the precise wording of these, but basically it is getting at the key theme of Does product placement a) raise awareness b) influence how the brand is perceived c) Lead to purchase?   These are the things that really matter with advertising. Questions for Joe: Do I need to put examples in? Do I need to connect the theory with practise more in the literature review? Do the topics I have sketched in my methodology need to go in the literature review instead? do I need to define implicit and explicit memory? Do I need to talk more about product placement at the start? References Aaker, D. (1991) Managing Brand Equity: Capitalising on the Value of a Brand Name, Free Press, New York Agrawal, J., Kamakura, W.A. (1995), The economic worth of celebrity endorsers: an event study analysis, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 59 No.3, pp.56-62 Ambler, T., Vakratsas, D., ‘The Pursuit of Advertising Theory’, Business Strategy Review, vol 7, issue 1, pgs 14-23, March 1996 Auty, S., Lewis, C., ‘Exploring Children’s Choice: The Reminder Effect of Product Placement’, Psychology and Marketing, Volume 21, Issue 9, pages 697–713, September 2004 Avery, R., Ferraro, R., ‘Verisimilitude or Advertising? Brand Appearances on Prime-Time Television’, Journal of Consumer Affairs, Vol. 34, No. 2, 2000, pages 217-244 Bargh, J. A., Pietromonaco, P. (1982). ‘Automatic information processing and social perception: The influence of trait information presented outside of conscious awareness on impression formation’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol 43, pages 437-449. Batra, R., and Ray, Affective responses mediating acceptance of advertising, Journal of Consumer Research 13 (1986), pp. 234–249 Batra, R., and Stayman, D., ‘The Role of Mood in Advertising Effectiveness’, The Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 17, No. 2 (Sep., 1990), pp. 203-214 Bhatnagar, N., Aksoy, L., Malkoc, S. A. (2004). Embedding brands within media content: The impact of message, media, and consumer characteristics on product placement efficacy. In L. J. Shrum (Ed.), The psychology of entertainment media: Blurring the lines between entertainment and persuasion (pp. 99–116). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Biehal, Stephens and Curlo, ‘Attitude toward the Ad and Brand Choice’, Journal of Advertising, Vol. 21, No. 3 (Sep., 1992), pp. 19-36 Brennan, I., Dubas, K.M. Babin, L.A. (1999) The effects of placement type and exposure time on product placement recognition. International Journal of Advertising, 18(3), pp. 323–338. Christenson, L. T., Torp, s. and Firat, F. A. (2005) Integrated marketing communication and postmodernity:   an odd couple, Vol 10, No 2, pp156-167 Colley, R.H. (1961), Defining Advertising Goals for Measured Advertising Results, Association of National Advertisers, New York, NY Cowley, E., Barron, C., ‘When Product Placement Goes Wrong: The Effects of Program Liking and Placement Prominence’, Journal of Advertising, Volume 37, Number 1 / Spring 2008    Pages:   89 – 98 d’Astous, A. Chartier, F. (2000) A study of factors affecting consumer evaluations and memory of product placements in movies. Journal of Current Issues and Research in Advertising, 22 (Fall), pp. 31–40. 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International criminal law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

International criminal law - Essay Example urder or conspiracy to kill members of a particular group with the aim of eradicating that group in totality.1 For genocide to qualify as a crime it must have two elements namely; the physical element and the mental component. The physical component involves committing five acts that are stipulates in Article two of the Convention that include; forcibly transferring children of a particular group to another one, killing members of a certain group, imposing measures or rather sanctions that are of the intent of hindering births within a particular group and causing mental and bodily torture to members of a group. The mental element is primarily based on the intent to destroy partly or in whole a religious, national, ethnic or racial setting. 2 In order for a crime to be regarded as genocide, it has to satisfy the provision of the two elements to make the perpetrators culpable under the internal criminal law. Both factors are crucial in forming the premise of genocide as a crime since none of them is independent, and thus they have to be satisfied to substantiate the crime. 3 Article three of the Genocide Convention outlines five distinct acts that are punishable in the context of the crime of genocide. These acts are as follows; complicating in genocide, attempt to commit genocide, genocide, direct and public incitement to commit genocide. When the actions outlined in this article are combined with the actual acts described in Article two of the Convention the result is the crime of genocide. Under the Convention of Genocide, the law protects four particular groups whose execution should amount to genocide. A religious group involves one whose members share common religious practices and beliefs. An ethnic group is that whose members can be identified by a common language or any other cultural identities. A racial group is primarily people who can be defined by standard physical characteristics for instance; skin colour. A national group is composed of individuals

EU Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

EU Law - Essay Example The first elections of the European parliament â€Å"by direct universal suffrage† took place in June 1979 (Europa, 2007). Since then these elections take place every five years giving more strength and responsibility to the Parliament. In European Union, EP is the only directly elected body. Every five year, 27 member states select 736 Members, which represent 500 million people of EU (EuroParl, 2011a). It covers every sphere of EU’s citizens life; civil, social, political, economical and environmental. Its domain of control is huge. Gradually EU’s parliament has gained a position of â€Å"co legislator† for all the new laws and amendments. Few people say that it has given increased powers and it can exercise it anywhere it wants. It has given supervisory powers in law making; even the Central bank cannot select its president without EU’s Parliaments assent. EuroParl (2011a) writes, â€Å"The European Parliament and the Council must adhere to the annual spending limits laid down in the multiannual financial perspective.† It has all the controlling power in monetary matters. It can also set up inquiries over controversial matters. EuroParl (2011b) writes, â€Å"With the entry into force of the Lisbon Treaty, the Parliament became a true co-legislator for the EU's entire annual budget, deciding on it in close collaboration with the Council.† The whole document is repeatedly filled with such sentences. â€Å"The European Parliament and the Council may, by means of directives adopted in accordance with the ordinary legislative procedure, establish†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ... In 1990, unification of Germany took place. On the other hand, Treaty of European Union, the new treaty was negotiated by the members of the EU, taking place at Maastricht in Dec 1991. It was put to force in Nov 1993. EP’s role under Maastricht Treaty stretched and each citizen regardless of its nationality was given the right to vote in the elections of the European Parliament. During March 2000, EU wore a new, modernized face enabling Europe to emerge as a giant business Union, concerning many other issues like, education, information, environment, unemployment etc. People, who were voters of EU were getting really restless demanding their Governments to find real solutions of their problems. EU has been evolving ever since it came into being along with its parliament’s powers and functions. This enhanced cooperation procedure, introduced firstly in Amsterdam treaty, has come a long way and literally plays a role in most of the EU matters. EU’s parliament eithe r has to give consent or has to be kept informed throughout. The main provision of Nice treaty was to change the decision-making process to make it more democratic. French and Dutch voters discarded the constitutional treaty and took 18 months to process the reforms. In December 2007 Lisbon treaty was signed by all the EU members and it is currently being endorsed. This treaty gave increased powers to European parliament at three fronts; Legislative, budgetary and supervisory powers. Witte, et al. (2010, pp.67) states, â€Å"Lisbon treaty has entrusted the EP with more active role in law making.† Enhanced co operation procedure was initiated in 1987, in which EP was free to give opinions and regulate directives proposed by the EC and

Translatability and Poetic Translation Essay Example for Free

Translatability and Poetic Translation Essay Translation used to be considered an inter-language transfer of meaning, which is the point of departure for research and study. Many earlier definitions demonstrate this, using source language and target language as their technical terms. Moreover, translation theories strictly confined themselves within the sphere of linguistics. For many years the popular trend in the translation circles had been perfect faithfulness to the original both in content and in form and it had been regarded as the iron criterion as if from the holy Bible for translators to observe. The godly status and the impossible idealistic belief were not altered until new thoughts arose with the respect of consideration of target readers, the unavoidable translator subjectivity and the purpose and function of translations. This thesis, starting to look from new angles such as the accommodation to target cultural conventions, the translators consciousness of linguistic and cultural adaptations to make it easy for readers to understand translated works without too much pain and effort, and translation as a purposeful endeavor. Translation is then understood as a much more complicated activity with a much broader scope. Translation of poetry was, and still is by some, believed as impossibility for any unfaithful elements would have been taken as failure, be it content or form. The arguments include linguistic elements and cultural elements. Most importantly the myth of untranslatability looks upon poetry as beauty itself which is untouchable for once it is touched it is destroyed. But as translation of poetry has never been stagnant though sometimes vigorous and sometimes not, there is strong evidence in both translation history and present day practice that poetic translation, a literary form as distinguished from fiction, drama, and prose, is translatable. Poetry itself serves a purpose, be it an illusive matter, and aesthetics can be reproduced in another language and culture if accommodation is made. It would be highly likely that the target readers would obtain rather similar if not the same aesthetic pleasure reading the translation as would the source readers reading the original poem. And this is, I believe, the only criterion in evaluating and assessing what is a successful piece of translation. Of course there are other functions of poetry like informative, didactic, cognitive, practical and even entertainment functions. The aesthetic function stays at the top of the list, though. In other words, if a translation fails to perform the aesthetic function it is in my eyes a bad translation, no matter how well the form is preserved. A word-for-word translation may be judged faithful in form, but it is failure in terms of the performance of functions. As aesthetics of one people influences them with different elements from that of another, accommodation in translation is of urgent necessity. Often loss or addition is made to achieve that end and sometimes only some elements are preserved while other elements are neglected. This is inevitable or there will be no translation, which means if one fears any loss or addition, one should learn to read the original always instead of reading the translated version. But how many of us can do that? The thesis aims at breaking the myth of untranslatability of poetry and argues from the appropriate understanding of translation to the various functions of poetry. And in the end it suggests, with examples taken from well-acknowledged translators of poetry, some strategies for poetic translators so that global talk opens up another channel for human communication. We will understand one another better. The detailed organization is as follows. This thesis, starting from a brief account of old ideas of the untranslatability of poetry, proposes instead a hypothesis that poetry is translatable (Chapter One). In the next chapter (Chapter Two) an analysis of why poetry is untranslatable is made in both linguistic and cultural respects. It goes on giving a detailed analysis of translation in general, its various definitions, its multiple functions and the authors own idea of it (Chapter Three). Then literary translation is discussed, involving its features and main functionaesthetic value which is the very core in poetic translation as well (Chapter Four). Chapter Five deals with features of poetic translation, treating at the beginning the relationship between poetry and aesthetics and then making a comparison of Sino-west poetic theories. What follows is a discussion of the longstanding issue of form vs content and the criteria of poetic translation. At the end of this chapter, the function of poetry is discussed. Chapter Six suggests some strategies in poetic translation, all with a strong consciousness of compensation of possible loss of the source text. The thesis ends with a conclusionpoetry is translatable. 1. LITERATURE REVIEW 1. 1 UNTRANSLATABILITY—WHAT THEY ARE SAYING Traduttore-traditore. (Translator = traitor. ), says the well-known Italian phrase. â€Å" Poetry is what gets lost in translation,† Robert Frost says. Western tradition and culture is founded on untranslatability. This may sound like a paradox, if one thinks of the long tradition of translatio studii or translatio imperii in the culture, or if you just ponder the very word tradition . Tradition, from Latin tradere (‘hand over), implies a process of communication, transmission, and transference that necessarily allows for the transformation, whether in terms of â€Å"losses† or â€Å"gains,† usually associated with what we consensually mean by translation. To translate is not to say the same thing in another tongue, but to make manifest a different thing. This may sound close to what we used to call â€Å"the impossibility of translation. Croce (quoted in Carravetta, 1997) holds that poets cannot be compared, as each is unique. Translation is impossible; it is only a pedagogical necessity. The responsibility of the interpreter is to capture the mood or state of being (stato danimo) of its author. In modern times some scholars have come to realize that something in a language can not be fully translated into another, in other words, there is an inevitable loss of meaning. Catford (1965), a celebrated translation scholar of the linguistic school, raises the issue of untranslatability with a new perspective. He argues that linguistic untranslaltability is due to the difference in the Source Language (SL) and the Target Language (TL), whereas cultural untranslatability is due to the absence in the TL of relevant situational features. Dabeluet and Viney (quoted in Wilss, 2001), in the fruitful book A comparative French and English Stylistics have analyzed in detail the points of linguistic difference between the two languages, differences that constitute areas where translation is impossible. Popovic (quoted in Wilss, 2001) also has attempted to define untranslatability without making a separation between the linguistic and cultural factors. Nida (1984) presents a rich source of information about the problems of loss in translation, in particular about the difficulties encountered by the translators when facing with terms or concepts in SL that do not exist in TL. Newmark (1982) has also once briefly talked about the deviation in translation. In Chinese translation history, in contemporary and modern day translation circles, many experts and scholars have also discussed the problem to some extent in their empirical assertions and research papers. As early as the flourishing period of Buddhist scriptures, the problem of untranslatability was mentioned and a rather strong expression was used to criticize certain versions as ‘feeding others what one has munched in his own mouth'( , my translation), not mentioning translation of poetry. Zhu guangqian (Zhu, 1987: 113) says that the reason why poetry translation poses more difficulty than prose translation lies in that poetry stress more on its musical quality while prose emphasizes more on meaning. Translating meaning is apparently easier than translating the musical quality (my translation). Chinese, unlike English, uses characters which are all single syllables, namely, one character as one syllable. So phrases and clauses are easily arranged into even number phrases and neat even number couplets, if the need arises for comparison or contrast. However, the western languages have strict grammatical rules, requiring fixed structures that forbids free inversions or disorders. If translating literally according to the Chinese form, confusion emerges. (Ibid: 201) (my translation) Poetry can not only be translated into a foreign language nor can it be translated into another style or another historical period of the same language because the sound and meaning of the language change with the times. Modern syllables and rhythms can not replace those needed in ancient language and modern associated meaning can not replace the ancient associated meaning (Ibid: 223) (my translation). Chen Shuxin (Chen, 2000) proposes that poetic untranslatability mainly lies in the transference of the beauty of the original sound. If put in order, the transference of sound stays at the top of the list, then form and style, lastly meaning (my translation). Wen Yiduo (Zhu, 1925: 149) exemplifies untranslatability as follows: â€Å"Li Bai stands between the ancient style and contemporary style. His wul u , which consists of five characters in each line and eight lines altogether, has the soul of ancient style and the body of the contemporary which is characterized with abundant embellishment. The embellished style may be translatable but not the poetic power. Nevertheless Li Bai without his tremendous power is no longer himself†. (my translation) For example, the lines , was translated as : (1. 1) The smoke from the cottages curls Up around the citron trees, And the hues of late autumn are On the green paulownias. â€Å"What is the matter? † Mr Zhu asks, â€Å"The glorious beauty of the Chinese poem, once transformed into English should become so barren and mediocre! Such precious lines as these are untranslatable for they are too subtle and too refined. If one has to translate it anyway, it is doomed to be destroyed. Beauty is untouchable. If it is touched, it dies. † ( my translation) (Ibid: 150). But Zhu later has to admit in another book that translation is not intended for the original author or those who understand the source language. It should not intend to compare with the original. It is impossible and unnecessary to please the reader who understands the source language with ones translation (my translation) (Ibid: 154). In summary, I find that those who stick to untranslatbility are but two kinds of people. Some strictly believe the holiness of the original text and others the absoluteness of the unity of meaning and form in a certain language. And they, idealistically, do not allow any addition or loss of meaning in the transferring process as in translation, which is actually inevitable and is a rule rather than an exception. 1. 2 TRANSLATABILITY A HYPOTHESIS Translation work, in its present form, dates back more than a thousand years in China and in Western countries. The ever-lasting practice of translation itself manifests the translatability of languages. Therefore, it stands to reason that a language can be translated from one language into another. Under the guide of this perception, former scholars usually probe into the problem of translation from an instinctive and empirical point of view. Not all words need to be translated. Some cannot. Some can be transcribable, but if there is no cultural equivalent, whether it is translatable or not it still needs to be explained, just like a jargon needs to be explained to the non-specialist in a footnote. Words, expressions or interjections that are exclusive to a culture, a religion or a jargon cannot always be translated in a satisfactory way because the same thing does not exist in the other languages culture. In many cases such words with no perfect equivalent are the words that end up being borrowed by the other language, sometimes with a possible spelling adaptation to ease pronunciation in the other language. Jacobson ( 1966: 238) (quoted in Wolfram Wilss, 2001) comes to the conclusion that poetry by definition is untranslatable. Only creative transposition is possible. With this as a prerequisite, translation of poetry should and must be translatable. Historically speaking, the activity of poetic translation has always been there, popular at one time and losing momentum at another, though always being practiced. In other words, whenever human communication is necessary, translation will live on and maintain a firm and fast stronghold. The reason is simple but unavoidable—we, as a nation or a country, are not living alone. As long as we do not lock ourselves up, translation will be translatable, be it scientific translation or poetic translation. Many translators in contemporary and modern China have made and are making outstanding contributions to the literary and poetic exchanges between China and the West through their diligent and painstaking work. Xu Yuanchong, for instance, has translated several books of Chinese ancient poems into English, the most important being the The 300 Hundred Tang Poems . Gu Zhengkun, by rendering into English The Collection of Mao Zedongs Poems , is another example to have introduced Chinese poetry to readers of English. Foreigners include Arthur Waley, Herbert Giles, Witter Bynner, W. J. B. Fletcher, James Legg, Amy Lowell, etc. Translators from English into English are, needless to say, numerous, such as Bian Zhilin, Guo Moruo, Tu Ang, Huang Gaoxin, Jiang Feng, Cao Minglun , and Zhu Chunshen, to name but a few for the present purpose. All these people do not only support the idea that translation of poetry is possible but provide living proof by their many well-received and highly-acclaimed translated works. 2. UNTRANSLATABILITY—ANALYSIS OF WHY. Lets see what specialists say, to begin with, about the nature and essence of translation. Ebel (1969: 50) (quoted in Wolfram Wilss, 2001) says that indeed, modern translation theory denies the very existence of translation as it has previously been understood, i. e. as the replacement of an utterance in one language by another, so that the two are interchangeable. The dream of â€Å"literal† or â€Å"close† translation, which culminated in the attempt to computerize translation, has given way in turn to what might be termed a higher subjectivity. Since â€Å"there are connections but not correlations or diagnostic correspondences between cultural norms and linguistic patterns†, no language is ever a valid substitute for another; â€Å"faithfulness† in translation is thus impossible. Gipper (1972: 91) (quoted in Wolfram Wilss, 2001: 41) believes that translation is and will continue to be a relative concept. It could be said that every translation represents a transposition from the perspectives of one linguistic view of the world to those of another and that this cannot take place entirely without changes or metamorphoses (change of form or character). Durbeck (1975: 8) (quoted in Wolfram Wilss, 2001: 42) holds that the world view of ones native tongue is dominant, thus making man a ‘prisoner of his language†. Wolfram Wilss (Ibid: 49) says, â€Å"The translatability of a text can thus be measured in terms of the degree to which it can be re-contextualized in TL, taking into account all linguistic and extra-linguistic factors. †¦The translatability of a text is thus guaranteed by the existence of universal categories in syntax, semantics, and the (natural) logic of experience. †¦Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the linguistic form has a function beyond that of conveying factual relationships and is therefore a constituent part of the functional equivalence to be achieved. This, for example, is true of play on words, which can usually be adequately translated semantically but not stylistically. † For instance, (2. 1) 1)-Are you training for a race ? – No, Im racing for a train. 2) Just because I am chased dont get the idea I am chaste . These are examples of linguistic play of words. (2. 2) 1) The problems of the world are easily soluble in wine. 2) Pay your taxes with a smile. These are instances of cultural play of words. Catford(1965: 99) believes that Cultural untranslatability is usually less â€Å"absolute† than linguistic untranslatability. Nida (1969: 483) holds that relative adequacy of inter-lingual communication are based on two fundamental factors: 1) semantic similarities between languages, due no doubt in large measure to the common core of human experience; and 2) fundamental similarities in the syntactic structures of languages, especially at the so-called kernel, or core, level. 2. 1 LINGUISTIC ELEMENTS Levy (1967: 58) (as quoted in Wilss, 2001: 124) thinks that the translator frequently finds himself in a conflict-and-decision-marked situation during the translation process, a situation which becomes all the more difficult to master, the more complex the textual segment to be translated is in terms of syntax, semantics and stylistics. In recent years the scope of linguistics has widened beyond the confines of the individual sentence. Text linguistics attempts to account for the form of texts in terms of their users. If we accept that meaning is something that is negotiated between producers and receivers to texts, it follows that the translator, as a special kind of text user, intervenes in this process of negotiation, to relay it across linguistic and cultural boundaries. In doing so, the translator is necessarily handling such matters as intended meaning, implied meaning, presupposed meaning, all on the basis of the evidence which the text supplies. The various domains of socio-linguistics, pragmatics and discourse linguistics are all areas of study which are germane (pertinent) to this process ( Hatim Mason,1990: 133). The focus of translation studies would be shifted away from the incidental incompatibilities among languages toward the systematic communicative factors shared by languages. Only in light of this new focus can such issues as equivalence and translation evaluation be satisfactorily clarified. Ke (Ke, 1999) says that the problem of translatability or untranslatability is closely related to mans understanding of the nature of language, meaning and translation. From the socio-semiotic point of view, â€Å"untranslatables† are fundamentally cases of language use wherein the three categories of socio-semiotic meaning carried by a source expression do not coincide with those of a comparable expression in the target language. Three types of untranslatability, referential, pragmatic, and intra-lingual may be the carrier of the message. Language-specific norms considered untranslatable by some linguists should be excluded from the realm of untranslatables. And since translation is a communicative event involving the use of verbal signs, the chance of untranslatability in practical translating tasks may be minimized if the communicative situation is taken into account. In a larger sense, the problem of translatability is one of degree: the higher the linguistic levels the source language signs carry meaning(s) at, the higher the degree of translatability these signs may display; the lower the levels they carry meaning(s) at, the lower the degree of translatability they may register. 2. 2 CULTURAL ELEMENTS Translation practice is one of the strategies a culture devises for dealing with what we have learned to call the â€Å"Other† (a term borrowed from Lefevere, 2001, meaning a culture different from ones own—my interpretation). The development of a translational strategy therefore also provides good indications of the kind of society one is dealing with. The fact that China, for instance, developed translational strategies only three times in its history, with the translation of the Buddhist scriptures from roughly the second to seventh centuries AD, with the translation of the Christian scriptures starting in the sixteenth century AD, and with the translation of much Western thought and literature starting in nineteenth century AD, says something abut the image of the Other dominant in Chinese civilization, namely that the Other was not considered very important, only as ‘branches or leaves instead of the ‘trunk. Cultures that are relatively homogeneous tend to see their own way of doing things as ‘naturally, the only way, which just as naturally becomes the ‘best way when confronted with other ways. When such cultures themselves take over elements from outside, they will, once again, naturalize them without too many qualms and too many restrictions. When Chinese translate texts produced by others outside its boundaries, it translates these texts in order to replace them, pure and simple. The translations take the place of the originals. They function as the originals in the culture to the extent that the originals disappear behind the translations. The Chinese were forced to deal with the Other by the spread of Buddhism, which did not threaten the fabric of society, and therefore could be acculturated rather easily on the terms of the receiving, Chinese society. This is apparent not just from the manner of translating, but even more so from the fact that Taoist concepts were used in translations to acculturate Buddhist concepts. ( quoted from Bassnett Lefevere, 2001: 169) What are the options the translator faces ? We suggest they are as follows: Is the element being translated obligatory or optional in the TL text format? If it is obligatory, is the order in which it occurs appropriate for the TL text format? If it is obligatory and the order is appropriate, will iteration (repetition), if there is any, be appropriate in the TL text format? The less evaluative the text is, the less need there will be for its structure to be modified in translation. Conversely, the more evaluative the text is, the more scope there may be for modification. (ibid: 187) The less culture-bound (treaties, declarations, resolutions, and other similar documents) a text is, the less need there will be for its structure to be modified in translation. Conversely, the more culture-bound a text is, the more scope there may be for modification. 2. 2. 1 HISTORICAL ELEMENTS There are numerous examples in both English and Chinese that exhibit historical elements deeply rooted in the languages. Idioms and legends always provide ready support in this respect. Once an idiom or fixed expressions has been recognized, we need to decide how to translate it into the target language. Here the question is not whether a given idiom is transparent, opaque, or misleading. Maybe its easier to translate an opaque expression than a transparent one. The main difficulties in the translation may be summarized as follows. An idiom or fixed expression may have no equivalent in the target language. One language may express a given meaning by means of a single word, another may express it by means of a transparent fixed expression, a third may express it by means of an idiom, and so on. So it is unrealistic to expect to find equivalent idioms and expressions in the target language in all cases. The idioms and expressions may be culture-specific which can make it untranslatable or difficult to translate. The expressions such as hot dog ( ) and Kangaroo Court ( ) which relate to specific cultural background provide good examples. An idiom or fixed expression may have a similar counterpart in the target language, but its context of use may be different; the two expressions may have different connotations, they may not be pragmatically transferable. The expression such as make a come-back ( , ) , though similar in meaning, the contexts in which the two idioms can be used are obviously different. Make a come-back is usually in positive occasions, but is usually used in negative occasions. An idiom may be used in the source text in both its literal and idiomatic senses at the same time. The expression such as kick down the ladder ( ) is a good example . It means treat with contempt those through whose assistance one has risen to a position of importance . It refers to the rising up politically or socially. But ? in Chinese translation refers to the tool or means to overcome difficulties, and is widely and commonly used. They are similar in the point of forget the help, and do harm to ( ) but different in details. Legends are of a quite similar character. What is a legendary hero in one language, for example, King Arthur in English may not be known in another language, such as Chinese. Without necessary annotation the target reader would be certainly at a loss. But if a Chinese legendary figure is loaned to serve the purpose of a courageous and brave man, the readers may be wondering if the English people also have such a legend, which may result in misunderstanding. Translation from Chinese into English exhibits the same problem. 2. 2. 2 GEOGRAPHICAL ELEMENTS Just as the Chinese saying goes that a people of one geographical location is different from that of another, translation of geographical terms is where another problem is encountered. Recognition and familiarity of the geography is of immense help to bring about the readers association, thus making comprehension easier. On the contrary, without a sense of geography, the readers have only their imagination in their power to employ. Translation of the following Chinese poem is a case in point. (2. 3) , . , . Xu Yuanchongs translation of the geographical location liaoxi becomes ‘frontier, which provides enough space for readers association even without a note to explain it. Unlike Xu, another translator uses pinyin and has it annotated, saying it is the frontier of the battlefield. Herbert Giles also translated this poem. (2. 4) Drive the young orioles away, Nor let them on the branches play; Their chirping breaks my slumber through And keep me from my dreams of you. In this translation the translator dismisses the geographical location liaoxi altogether, for it would be difficult for English readers to associate the place with the frontier where her husband has been summoned. (Lu,, 2002: 255) The reason why the geographical name is omitted is that the translator feels no need to burden the target reader who would know little where that place is while for a Chinese the association is immediate, activating a vivid picture of the harsh environment for the poor soldiers, hungry, cold with knee-deep snow and whipping wind, hopeless of returning safe and sound, and confronted with the deadly barbarian enemy. 2. 2. 3 RELIGIOUS ELEMENTS Lindbeck in his article The Gospels Uniqueness: Election and Untranslatability says: â€Å" This essay is an experiment in looking at the uniqueness of Christianity from the perspective of religions as community-forming comprehensive semiotic systems. Uniqueness in this outlook consists formally of untranslatability and materially of the unsubstitutable memories and narratives which shape communities identities†. The Biblical story is well known. It has two main chapters: chapter one, Babel (Genesis 11: 1-9); chapter two, the Pentecost (Genesis 10: 9-11). In Genesis, the Almighty creates the different human languages to colonize an upstart humanity and thus secure the untranslatability of his own divinity. In the Acts of the Apostles, the miracle of total intelligibility, because it is a miracle and not a first instance of simultaneous translation, transcends language difference, and hence humanity, and thus once again presupposes and guarantees the ungraspable ideal of Gods absolute meaning. The Babelic confusion of languages imposed by a jealous God, on the one hand, and the gift of the Holy Ghost in the Pentecostal cloven tongues of fire granted by a proselytizing god, on the other, both tell the same story of imperial identity and subjugated otherness. One single language is good, for it bespeaks the untouchable self-sameness of the deity. If we follow the argument above, then translation simply becomes ‘mission impossible. Yet translation of all kinds of religious scriptures are taking place all the time, with either meaning addition or loss of the original. And the ideas are spreading far and wide. Untranslatability of the divinity is only of pedantic research value, not barring the way of the translators practicing translations, much less the way of the common people fervent to learn about divinity. 3. TRANSLATION IN GENERAL 3. 1 TRANSLATION VS MEANING It is universally agreed that translation means translating meaning. What is meaning, then? As G. Steiner (1975: 45) points out, and as much research into the reading process has shown, each act of reading a text is in itself an act of translation, i. e. an interpretation. We seek to recover what is ‘meant in a text from the whole range of possible meanings, in other words, from the meaning potential which Halliday (1978: 109) defines as â€Å"the paradigmatic range of semantic choice that is present in the system, and to which the members of a culture have access in their language†. Inevitably, we feed our own beliefs, knowledge, attitudes and so on into our processing of texts, so that any translation will, to some extent, reflect the translators own mental and cultural outlook, despite the best of impartial intentions. No doubt, the risks are reduced to a minimum in most scientific and technical, legal and administrative translating; but cultural predispositions can creep in where least expected (Hatim Mason. 1990: 11). In literary translating, the process of constant reinterpretation is most apparent. The translators reading of the source text is but one among infinitely many possible readings, yet it is the one which tends to be imposed upon the readership of the TL version. Since an important feature of poetic discourse is to allow a multiplicity of responses among SL readers, it follows that the translators task should be to preserve, as far as possible, the range of possible responses; in other words, not to reduce the dynamic role of the reader. The readers purposes can be divided into two types: for comparative literary research (intellectual) and foreign literature appreciation (aesthetic). For different purposes the translator may translate differently. Translation is a matter of choice, but choice is always motivated: omission, additions and alterations may indeed be justified but only in relation to intended meaning (Hatim Mason. 1990: 12). The translators motivations are inextricably bound up with the socio-cultural context in which the act of translating takes place. Consequently, it is important to judge translating activity only within a social context. Before there is translation, for example, there has to be a need for translation. In fact, the social context of translating is probably a more important variable than the textual genre, which has imposed such rigid distinctions on types of translating in the past (‘literary translation, ‘scientific and technical translation, ‘religious translation, etc. ) Divisions of this kind tend to mask certain fundamental similarities between texts from different fields. There are regularities of discourse procedures which transcend the boundaries between genres and which it is our aim to describe. Nida (1975) discusses translation from the point of view of semantic componential analysis, which consists in common (shared) components (the overlapping features of the single lexical units of a word field); diagnostic (contrastive) components (features which distinguish the meaning of individual lexical units of a word field or lexical units with more than one meaning); supplementary components (semantically optional secondary features which often have a connotative in addition to fundamental meaning/denote: be the sign or symbol of character and can cause metaphorical extensions). I have done some research from the perspective of hermeneutics which studies meaning in human communication. Modern ideas on hermeneutics hold that the writer may be an editor or a redactor and that he may have used sources. In considering this aspect of discourse one must take into account the writers purpose in writing as well as his cultural milieu. Secondly, one must consider the narrator in the writing who is usually different from the writer. Sometime